Salt is an important nutrient that must be added to diets based mainly on agricultural produce. There were once many temple and burial mounds in Nashville, especially along the Cumberland River. This distinct cultural name is derived from its development in the central part of the Mississippi River valley. [21]Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. Updates? That salt production took place is apparent by the literal pavement of broken bowls and other briquetage (by-products of salt-making) in Salt Mine Valley. Kay, Marvin, and George Sabo III The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Drexel A., Peterson (ed.). The people who lived in this now largely forgotten city were part . The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. On the plaza, the crowd's buzzing energy turned to a collective roar when spectators bet on bouts of chunkey. Emerald Mound is a Plaquemine culture Mississippian period site in the present-day state of Mississippi. After Cahokia's collapse in the mid 14th century they coexisted with Late Mississippian groups centered on eastern Arkansas near Memphis. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples.[18]. Meat, fish, and some plant foods including beans contain lysine. The beginnings of asettlement hierarchy, in which one major center (withmounds) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds. Shell-tempered pottery and other artifacts (such as a chunkey stone) suggest the people living there may have been affiliated with the Mississippian center at the Bottle Creek site in Alabama. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors.[10]. The inhabitants built two earthen mounds, one encircled by a unique spiral ramp, the only one of its kind still known to exist in this country. Metallurgical analysis of copper artifacts from Cahokia. Pauketat, Timothy R. (1998). This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by Cyrus Thomas in 1894. The Parkin Site: Thetype sitefor the Parkin phase, an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province ofCasquivisited by Hernando de Soto in 1542. In Handbook of American Indians, Vol. Recognizable aspects of Mississippian culture emanated from Cahokia to most regions of the Southeast, including parts of Louisiana, by 1200 CE. Scholars have studied the records ofHernando de Sotos expedition of 15391543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. Mississippian culture sites are not common in Louisiana, but a few of the sites that might have been occupied by Mississippians are reviewed. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). The roof of the house was made from a steep A shaped framework of wooden poles covered with grass woven into a tight thatch. [19]Political structures collapsed in many places. The people buried in one of America's most famously ornate prehistoric graves are not who we thought they were, researchers say. Mortuary ceremonies at these mounds celebrated connections between the living community and ancestor spirits. Caddo village scene, by Ed Martin. There were a number of Mississippian cultures, with most spreading from the Middle Mississippian area. 8 miles from the Mississippi town of Natchez. These maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century.[5]. New York, Academic Press. In addition, in its final form, the site contained twelve mounds defining a double plaza. The exchange between the two cultures during the Spanish march was one-sided and destructive. First major work to deal solely with the Plaquemine societies. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with the adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization. Cultural traditions at Cahokia involved dramatic changes in subsistence, artifacts, architecture, organization of space, settlement locations, public feasts, and mortuary rituals. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed these native societies. Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer who, from 1539-43, lived with and spoke to many Mississippian cultures. At AD 1200, in the wake of the Mississippian florescence, the late Woodland occupants of the Lower Mississippi Valley (LMV) underwent a major reorganization of lifeways. The presence of various non-local raw materials at Ozark mound centers further suggests that these sites served as nodes in the long distance trade networks that supplied the exotic materials to manufacture the specialized funerary objects and prestige goods seen in abundance in the Mississippian heartland areas. [citation needed]. The Mississippi period should not be confused with the Mississippian culture. Payne, Claudine The settlement consists of 140 identified structures of varying sizes, covering an area of 54-acres that were constructed from AD 1000 to AD 1550. Pauketat, Timothy R.; The Forgotten History of the Mississippians in. [10]EtowahandOcmulgeein Georgia are both prominent examples of major South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. Brewminate uses Infolinks and is an Amazon Associate with links to items available there. The construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. The site was occupied from AD 1100 to around AD 1450, inhabited by up to 1000 individuals at its peak. By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Many funerary items from the Spiro site were decorated with motifs representing the local expression of a ceremonial complex that drew participants from a wide area. A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. The Southeast Native Americans were the first to organize villages around chiefdoms, in which families were ranked by social status and proximity to the chief himself. Still others are shaped like huge animals. Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian Culture include: the Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Kansa, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Osage, Quapaw, Seminole, Tunica-Biloxi, Yamasee, and Yuchi. Occupation at the site appears to have ended by AD 14001450, possibly due to the exhaustion of local resources such as timber and game, a period in which archaeologists call the vacant quarter. The agricultural boom of the Mississippian culture concentrated wealth at the top. There is other evidence for Mississippian influence in extreme southeastern Louisiana, again mostly in the form of shell-tempered pottery and Mississippian designs that appear on both shell- and grog-tempered vessels. Around 1100 or 1200 A.D., the largest city north of Mexico was Cahokia, sitting in what is now southern Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. The double-plaza design is shared by some of the Plaquemine culture sites in Mississippi, like Winterville and Lake George in western Mississippi, but these sites are earlier than the Mississippian component at Transylvania, which dates to circa 1500 CE. An amazing assortment of large mounds of earth lies in parts of the eastern United States. Widespread trade networks extending as far west as theRocky Mountains, north to theGreat Lakes, south to theGulf of Mexico, and east to theAtlantic Ocean. Shell-tempered pottery is arguably the most pervasive artifact of Mississippian culture. By 1050 CE, these ingredients coalesced, perhaps around a religious leader of a lunar cult, producing an explosive flashpointmetaphorically described by one archaeologist as a Big Bangof culture change. Because the natives lacked immunity to infectious diseases unknowingly carried by the Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. [10] Etowah and Ocmulgee in Georgia are both prominent examples of major South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. Moundville is a large settlement founded around AD 1000 near the banks of the Black Warrior River in the present-day state of Alabama. Privacy Policy. The term Middle Mississippian is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. Numerous mounds were made by the ancient Native American cultures that flourished along the fertile valleys of the Mississippi, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri Rivers a thousand years ago, though many were destroyed as farms . 1996 Mounds, Embankments, and Ceremonialism in the Trans-Mississippi South. The people constructed 13 earthen mounds, 6 of which are large platform mounds, and hundreds of residential dwellings over an area of 100 acres. Grand Village of the Natchez: The main village of theNatchez people, with three mounds. (You can unsubscribe anytime), by After his contact, their cultures were relatively unaffected directly by Europeans, though they were indirectly. A typical Mississippian house was rectangular, about 12 feet long and 10 feet wide. Chiefdoms are unstable forms of society, given the inherent competition between communities and their leaders. [16]The sites generally lacked woodenpalisadefortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. The Transylvania mound site is in East Carroll Parish. The Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, first published in 1976, is the official publication of the Midwest Archaeological Conference, Inc. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites fromWisconsin(seeAztalan State Park) to the Gulf Coast, and fromFloridatoArkansasandOklahoma. Angel Mounds: A chiefdom in southernIndiananearEvansville. They contend that, as in most other parts of Louisiana, Plaquemine culture ideals ultimately held sway. Corrections? Corn, squash, and beans. The emergence of Mississippian culture in the Appalachian Summit is abrupt and a hypothesis of extended, in situ cultural evolution is tenuous. The Nashville area was a major population center during this period. Most well known are the Natchez and Caddo chiefdoms encountered by Spanish and French explorers in the early 18th century. The complexity of the costumes and designs suggests to some that there was Mesoamerican influence at this time. TheMississippian culturewas aNative Americancivilization that flourished in what is now theMidwestern,Eastern, andSoutheastern United Statesfrom approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010. Early, Ann M. [10] Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. The Mississippian stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. A Plaquemine/Mississippian site approx. Fitzhugh Mounds: A Plaquemine/Mississippian site in Madison Parish, Louisiana which dates from approximately 1200 . [1] It had a deep history in the area stretching back through the earlier Coles Creek (700-1200 CE) and Troyville cultures (400-700 CE) [2] to the Marksville culture (100 BCE to 400 CE). [2] A prominent feature of Plaquemine sites are large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds facing an open plaza.The flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed in several stages. prime 400 years before the onset of Mississippian culture. 2008 Hampson Archeological Museum State Park. Current issues are available through the Scholarly Publishing Collective. One symbol, the cross-in-circle, illustrates the world, suspended from the sky by cords located at the cardinal directions. The Natchez are the best-known of the Mississippian cultures to have survived French and Spanish colonization; they numbered about 500 members in the early 21st century. By that time, however, most mid-South and Southeastern societies were less complexly organized than their predecessors. - Registered Address: HeritageDaily LTD - Suite/Unit 40 17 Holywell Hill, St Albans, Herts, United Kingdom, AL1 1DT, Moundville The Mound Metropolis of the Mississippian Culture, Ancient Genomes Trace the Origin & Decline of the Scythians, Submerged prehistoric site discovered with remains of extinct species, Bronze Age well contents reveal the history of animal resources in Mycenae, Greece, Minoan civilisation may have used celestial star path navigation techniques, Scans reveal hidden tunnel in Great Pyramid of Giza, Ancient Egyptian discovery rewrites history of Sudanese kingdom, Forgotten Lowbury Woman burial to reveal her secrets, Fragment of comb is made from a human skull, Evidence of steel tools being used in Europe during Late Bronze Age, Legio V Macedonica The Last Roman Legion, The mystery of Tutankhamuns meteoric iron dagger, The Immortal Armour of Chinas Jade Burial Suits. Warfare between groups and transmission of Old World diseases moving ahead of direct contact with Europeans might also have contributed to declines in some areas. Wide distribution of Braden style artifacts across the Southeast by A.D. 1200 shows how the style spread outward from the Cahokia area in the centuries immediately following its origin. From AD 1350, the inhabitants started to construct 29 truncated earthen pyramid platform mounds orientated around a central plaza for ceremonial gatherings and games. The Parkin site is preserved today as part of Parkin Archeological State Park. Indian Mounds were constructed by deliberately heaping soil, rock, or other materials (such as ash, shell, and the remains of burned buildings) onto natural land surfaces. In some areas of Louisiana, maize was adopted as a food source relatively earlythe Caddo grew maize along with native plants by 900 CE. A typical Mississipian town was built near a river or creek. This is recorded on the Biblical Timeline Chart with World history around the late 5th century.. Trade networks developed between 200 AD and 400 AD collapsed. Certainly there was indirect contact between Mesoamerica and the Southeast in the precolonial past. The best evidence for determining cultural occupations is a combination of cultural artifacts and settlement patterns. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between thePacahaand theCasqui. Kincaid Site: A major Mississippian mound center in southernIllinoisacross theOhio RiverfromPaducah, Kentucky. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984. It covered about ten acres of ground, and was surrounded by a palisade, a fence made of wooden poles placed upright in the ground. Weinstein, Richard A., and Ashley A. Dumas. [10]Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at theCahokiasite nearSt. Louis, Missouri. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. The final occupation at Transylvania may represent a late migration of Mississippian people down the Mississippi River into Louisiana. Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, heencountered several native groupsnow thought to have been Caddoan. [13]South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Thelist of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expeditionchronicles those villages. The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilisation, that emerged around AD 800 in the Mid-western, Eastern, and South-eastern regions of America. There is evidence for maize in ritual contextsfor instance at the terminal Coles Creek period Lake Providence Mounds siteby 1150 CE. The civilisation was composed of large urban centres linked together by loose trading networks, with most settlements containing a series of raised earthen pyramid platform mounds. Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean. Cahokia began to decline by the 13th century and was mysteriously abandoned around AD 1300-1350. Ceremonial items made around Cahokia were decorated using a specific set of design criteria called the Braden style. Different orientations to the land and its resources did not prevent these groups from maintaining economic and ceremonial ties with their agricultural neighbors in adjacent regions. This contributed to the myth of theMound Buildersas a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked byCyrus Thomasin 1894. [17]These languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. Indian fighting generally consisted of skirmishes, in which small groups of warriors struck quick and damaging blows. There was a strong conservative core among most of the Plaquemine culture peoples in Louisiana who ignored or maybe even actively resisted the lifestyles or worldviews of Mississippian culture. Native American culture is an important part of U.S. history. The three most important crops for Mississippian cultures. It was known for building large, earthen platform mounds, and often other shaped mounds as well. The Mississippian period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. Washington, Smithsonian Institution. Nature 316:530-532. The Etowah Mounds is an ancient tribal centre of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture, that built a large settlement comprising of three large pyramid style platform mounds, in addition to 3 lessor mounds on the shore of the Etowah River in the present-day Bartow County of Georgia. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (15671568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo andPawnee, now spoken mainly by elderly people. Recent scholarship has shown, however, that while these are widely shared characteristics among The expansion of Mississippian culture from circa 1050 to 1200 CE involved major realignments in many aspects of American Indian life. The Mississippi period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The "Mississippian period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". Mowdy, Marlon Bottle with long-nosed god decorations, bowl with hand appliqus, and engraved jar. Further Reading: Refiguring the Archaeology of Greater Cahokia. "The people who lived [in Spiro] came to control what we call the Mississippian culture. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) In this instance, the movement of people appears to be on a seasonal basis, and largely directed towards one activitysalt-making. The cosmological concepts were inherent in a limited set of symbols, which were executed with infinite variations. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering andannealingcopper for ritual objects such asMississippian copper platesand other decorations,[6]but did not smelt iron or practice bronzemetallurgy. The site contains a Plaquemine component with Mississippian influence, as evidenced by a mixed grog-tempered and shell-tempered pottery assemblage. The site was occupied by the Macon Plateau culture from around AD 950 during the Early Mississippian-culture phase, although archaeological evidence suggests that there has been near continuous occupation by various peoples going back 17,000 years from the Paleo-Indian period. Keyes, Charles R.Prehistoric Man in Iowa. | Indians Before Europeans | First Encounters | Historic Arkansas Indians | Indians After Europeans | Current Research | Writing Prompts | Learning Exercises | Project Background and History |, The Mississippi Period: Southeastern Chiefdoms, Last Updated: February 17, 2013 at 10:58:45 PM Central Time, The Daughters and the Serpent Monster (Caddo), Lightning Defeats the Underground Monster (Caddo), The Calumet Ceremony in the Mississippi Valley, Gentleman of Elvas: Chapter XXXII and XXXIII, Smoking Ceremony from the Songs of the Wa-Xo'-Be (Osage). Occupation of the site started around AD 1000, with the construction of 23 truncated earthen pyramid platform mounds (only 12 survive) between AD 1200 and 1250. Cahokia was a large city complex, founded around AD 1050 in what is now western Illinois. and the occurrence of numerous burials often accompanied by elaborate grave goods. The list consists of 27 members. Archaeologists disagree about whether the individuals depicted represent the Mississippian elite, culture heroes, mythic heroes, or gods. The type of structures constructed ran the gamut: temples, houses, and burial buildings. Artist's view of the Parkin site. However, except for Sims, little is known about these sites. The late prehistoric cultures of the southeastern United States dating from ca. (1927). Pauketat, Timothy R.; "The Forgotten History of the Mississippians" in, This page was last edited on 27 February 2023, at 20:26. Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity. Politically and culturally each large town or village dominated a satellite of lesser villages; government was in the hands of priest-rulers. Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto brought diseases and cultural changes that eventually contributed to the decline of many Mississippian cultures. 534-544. Mississippian and Related Cultures. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working (Mound 34), astronomy (Cahokia Woodhengeand the symbolicmaximum southern moon risealignedRattlesnake Causeway), andritual retainer burials(Mound 72). Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. Archaeologists believe that the Plaquemine culture builders were the ancestors of the historic Natchez, who inhabited the area using Emerald Mound site as their main ceremonial centre when the first Europeans explored the region. The magnitude of such public works and the distribution of temples suggest a dominant religious cult and a cadre of priest-rulers who could command the services of a large, stable, and docile population, as well as several artist-craftsman guilds. 14, Southeast, edited by Raymond D. Fogelson, pp. Washington, Smithsonian Institution. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. 2004 Prehistory of the Western Interior after 500 B.C. Many parts of Arkansas and the mid-South were unsuitable for intensive field agriculture. The three examples presented here, the Transylvania, Salt Mine Valley, and Sims sites, are all late, occurring in what archaeologists call the protohistoric or early colonial period, when Europeans were present but their direct contact with American Indians was limited. Soil nutrients and timber resources were depleted. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. 1993 Caddoan Saltmakers in the Ouachita Valley: The Hardman Site. The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilization that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. Mississippian Mortuary Practices: Beyond Hierarchy and the Representationist Perspective. All Rights Reserved. Ferguson, Leland G. (October 2526, 1974). They grew much of their food in small gardens using simple tools like stone axes, digging . Mark A. Rees, Rebecca Saunders, Courtesy of Department of Sociology and Anthropology Archaeology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, Davies Collection 3359. Formations made of earth that were used as foundations for Mississippian culture structures. Palimpsest 8(6):185229. This essay contains a description of some aspects of Mississippian culture outside of Louisiana, to provide a better background for descriptions of Mississippi-period peoples in Louisiana. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. Archeologists believe the Plaquemine people were the ancestors of historic Tunica Indians. The adoption of the paraphernalia of theSoutheastern Ceremonial Complex(SECC), also called the Southern Cult. The poles were then covered with a woven cane matting. New York: Viking, 2009. The mounds were built of rich humus in agricultural lowlands, and starting in the 19th century they were destroyed by farm . While archaeologists are still debating the meanings of the symbols, they do understand some. The local population increased dramatically and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and . [16] The sites generally lacked wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Originally published by Wikipedia, 12.15.2004, under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license. The result is a clay that allows the potter to make a thinner, harder vessel, and to create more elaborate vessel forms. Because the natives lackedimmunitytoinfectious diseasesunknowingly carried by the Europeans, such asmeaslesandsmallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Details of mound construction and burial practices indicate that the Ozark communities were affiliated with Arkansas River Valley groups that built and used the Spiro site. However, some archaeologists argue that the shell-tempered pottery assemblage at Transylvania owes more to Plaquemine culture precedents than Mississippian culture innovations. But the main material manifestation of this is shell-tempered pottery, which never penetrated far from the northeastern and southeastern borders of Louisiana. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times. The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many Caddoan languages. 1983 Archaeology of the Central Mississippi Valley. The Kincaid Mounds is an ancient tribal centre established around AD 800 near the banks of the Ohio River in the present-day state of Illinois. Only the Natchez Bluffs region and regions to the south withstood the Mississippian cultural influences. Morse, Dan F. and Phyllis A. Morse Although hunting and gathering plants for food was still important, the Mississippians were mainly farmers. Courtesy of the University of Arkansas Museum. Be sure to visit the Virtual Hampson Museum, a state-of-the-art website where you can view 3D images of Nodena phase ceramic vessels, tour a 3D visualization of the Upper Nodena village, and learn more about the Nodena people and their place in Arkansas history. The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. Mississippian pots, along with many other utilitarian and ritual items, were decorated with a set of symbols that evoked cosmological conceptsideas about the societys place in the universe. The development of thechiefdomor complex chiefdom level of social complexity. Parkin phase settlement pattern, by Jane Kellett (Arkansas Archeological Survey). Its people are considered descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek culture. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. A new study of 900-year-old human remains originally unearthed in Illinois almost 50 years ago reveals that their burial has been fundamentally misunderstood from the number of people actually buried there, to the sexes of those interred. Overview: The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture (circa 1200 to 1700 CE) centered on the Lower Mississippi River valley. Fayetteville, Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-centuryCherokee. In historic Southeastern Indian towns, such rituals were performed to renew and reaffirm relationships between humans and the spirit world. Archaeologists call those people mound builders. Some Mississippian chiefdoms persisted into historic times. In Arkansas and elsewhere in eastern North America, Native Americans built earthen mounds for ritual or burial purposes or as the location for important structures, but mound-building ceased shortly after European contact . The Creek people in Georgia practiced slavery, forcing prisoners of war to work their fields. Mississippian culture, the last major prehistoric cultural development in North America, lasting from about 700 ce to the time of the arrival of the first European explorers. During times of warfare or strife, the regional population took shelter in the fortified towns. 1985 A 450-year Drought Reconstruction for Arkansas, United States.

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