The glutamate story. PubMed Health. Epilepsy. Antiepileptic drugs and MTHFR polymorphisms influence hyper-homocysteinemia recurrence in epileptic patients. Once there is brain inflammation, special immune cells called microglia cells, which are normally in a semi-resting state, now become very active trying to reduce glutamate levels in the brain by making sure they are not too high. Almond butter spread, or a few almonds, are usually okay if eaten occasionally. Avoid white rice because free glutamates are involved in the processing of it. Legislation requires that if monosodium glutamate has been added to a food, the label must declare this in the ingredients listing. The primary role of MSG is to enhance the savory flavor of the food and make it taste more meaty. Aspartate is found in food and drinks as an artificial sweetener additive (aka aspartame or aspartic acid). The original meaning of the acronym was the glutamate & aspartate restricted diet, being derived from the fact that The G.A.R.D. Magnesium curbs sugar cravings, calms the body, is a natural calcium channel blocker, regulates blood sugar, increases energy naturally, and metabolizes estrogen. Nightshade fruits (tomatoes) and vegetables (eggplant, peppers, potato) in small amounts provided there are no reactions when re-introduced. Supplement with N-acetylcysteine (NAC), green tea and omega-3 fatty acids such as cod liver oil to block glutamates. Kash, S.F., et al. Autism Res. Cross-reactive rubella virus and glutamic acid decarboxylase (65 and 67) protein determinants recognised by T cells of patients with Type I diabetes mellitus. Is this an emergency? Continue to avoid soybean products, but some people can tolerate other legumes and beans in small amounts. But this does not take into account entry via the gut brain axis. Stimulants such as tea, coffee, chocolate, sugar, sweets, soft drinks, excess salt, spices and animal proteins may trigger seizures by suddenly changing the body's metabolism. While on the diet do not stop any medications or supplements previously prescribed unless advised otherwise by your medical or health care professional. Understanding the different sources and types of food that contain glutamate can help sensitive individuals make the best food choices and avoid symptoms of glutamate sensitivity. The ketogenic diet is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate, adequate-protein diet that has been used for almost a century in the treatment of epilepsy. 1495 (2013) 5260. Presence of GAD65 autoantibodies in the serum of children with autism or ADHD. Katie Reids pantry list of recommended foods. Neurosci Lett. Epilepsy Res. Glutamate is perhaps best known as the food additive monosodium . (October 2004). I am seeing first time epileptic dogs within three weeks of starting such diets. Eating protein with each meal and not going more than 3-4 hours without eating is important to keep blood sugar level. Dietary treatments can help some people with poorly controlled seizures by using specific levels of fat, carbohydrate and protein to affect how the brain works. For example, dietary fiber reduces glycemic index. GABA System Dysfunction in Autism and Related Disorders: From Synapse to Symptoms. Chemical messenger. One example would be evidence which shows that when people with epilepsy switch to a low-carb diet they often experience reduced depression along with a reduction in seizures. The Glutamate Aspartate Restricted Diet is used to treat certain medical conditions such as celiac disease and epilepsy. So, when youre consuming MSG, the level of glutamate in the blood can rise as high as 20-fold. Supplement with PharmaGABA because it gets GABA into the brain without converting into glutamine or glutamate. To provide a diet that excludes foods naturally high in free glutamate, and food additives containing glutamate. 2012 Aug 6;13:94. Sauces and Condiments Sauces and condiments are high risk (especially soy based or tomato based) so it is best to season foods with fresh herbs, spices and salt (avoid chilli/paprika). Fernell, E. Further studies of GABA and Glutamate imbalances in autism are important challenges for future research. The ketogenic diet is high in fat with low levels of carbohydrate and protein. Animal model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproate: altered. STIMs (self-stimulatory behaviors) such as: Increases production in the brain of alpha waves, slow brain waves that produce a reflective meditative state, Is needed for speech and language production, comprehension, conversation and the pause and space between words, Maintains healthy levels of IgA (antibodies that protect the gut and other mucous linings from harmful foreign toxic matter) which supports a healthy immune system and prevents a , Is needed for action of the pituitary which regulates sleep and HPA axis which regulates stress response, Too much free glutamate coming from dietary sources (believed to be the primary issue), Chronic infections that have crossed the blood-brain barrier, such as seen in. 2000 Jun;43(6):750-62. 4) Lamb and eggs are relatively low. Once the villi are damaged, they can no longer absorb minerals and vitamins, fats and amino acids, nor can they protect the brain from the thousands of toxins in our world today. Basically, anything that has a strong flavour to stimulate our taste buds contains glutamates. As important as glutamate is for brain functioning, it is also a double-edged sword in the brain. Mol Psychiatry. about people improving bipolar symptoms with ketogenic or low carb diets . A glutamate sensitivity can manifest itself with headaches, nausea, gastric upset and asthma attacks; the onset of these symptoms can occur within hours of eating the food. GAD65 is essential for synthesis of GABA destined for tonic inhibition regulating epileptiform activity. Tzang, R.F., et al. BMC Neurosci. It is better to buy whole fresh foods rather than buy canned or packaged foods that have free glutamates in them. Acta Paediatr. Following the diet, Dogtor J claims, can help alleviate symptoms by eliminating certain foods from your diet. Because microglia cells are immune cells, they have the mechanism to become inflamed and trigger excitotoxcity at the same time they are acting as an immune cell; this condition is called immunoexcitoxicity. Electromagnetic fields act via activation of voltagegated calcium channels to produce beneficial or adverse effects. With strong symptoms in conditions such as ADHD, epilepsy, or fibromyalgia its best to avoid all nuts and seeds until symptoms settle down. Supplement with lithium orotate to reduce the amount of glutamate in the brain and promote GABA. PLoS One. Perturbations in the brain's glutamate-glutamine cycle, such as increased extracellular levels of glutamate, loss of astroglial glutamine synthetase, and changes in glutaminase and glutamate dehydrogenase, are frequently encountered in patients with epilepsy. It is essential for life, which means it is not only found circulating in the human body but also in a natural form in many foods commonly eaten. The mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier AGC1 and calcium homeostasis: Physiological links and abnormalities in autism. Most fruits and vegetables are great to eat, including green leafy vegies, root vegetables and berries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018 Jan 29;13(1):e0191794. Some kids who have been diagnosed with emotional problems or attention deficit with hyperactivity considered to be problem children are often merely reactive to these substances and removal has made their lives (and those around them) normal. J Neural Transm (Vienna). Introduction to a Low Glutamate diet. Later, gradually re-introduce some of the more natural sources of glutamate back into your diet. Some individuals are completely legume intolerant. Health Press, 1996. By keeping a detailed diary and looking back on it over time, youll be able to gain some insight as to what particular foods or even situations, such as being at a school with heavy WiFi usage or a mold issue, that exacerbate your childs symptoms. 130 (1991) 125127. For people with epilepsy, diet can reduce the likelihood of seizures. Supplement with selenium, B vitamins, polyphenols, bioflavonoids, carotenoids, vitamin E and vitamin C because they all have unique properties which are beneficial in protecting the brain. Changes in human brain glutamate concentration during hypoglycemia: insights into cerebral adaptations in hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure in type 1 diabetes. Another name often associated with glutamine and glutamate is glutamic acid, which is essentially the same as glutamate. 1997;94(25) . This 50-year male suffered from OCD from age 11, fibromyalgia and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). 45 (5): 58395. Tree nuts such as pecans and macadamias are the lowest. (Oil Wheat Germ) Lambert, Beth, et al. Epilepsy in mice deficient in the 65-kDa isoform of glutamic aciddecarboxylase. The median serum levels was 11.8 ng/ml, ranging from less than 4 ng/ml to 34.2 ng/ml. Adverse effects include constipation, low blood sugar, and gastrointestinal reflux. BrainRes. After folate therapy, plasma homocysteine and folate were normal in all patients. 2012;36(9):20442055. If someone has acid reflux, it makes that a lot worse. Breitenkamp, A.F., et al. The role of glutamate and its receptors in autism and the use of glutamate receptor antagonists in treatment. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. 2004;138(2):337341. Chicken is quite low while rabbit and turkey are the highest in glutamate. We are one of the premiere centers in the world for clinical and research expertise on the ketogenic diet, having treated over 1,500 children with this approach. . GABA System Dysfunction in Autism and Related Disorders: From Synapse to Symptoms. Natural plant products and extracts that reduce immunoexcitotoxicity-associated neurodegeneration and promote repair within the central nervous system. 9) Meats: Meats are naturally rich in glutamate and aspartate, but this is offset by other amino acids in the food that balances them, in almost all cases. What, how much, and even when we eat all affect the way our brains work. Seeds Seeds such as sunflower seeds and pumpkin seeds (pepitas) and other seeds are generally high in glutamate. Manev, H., et al. Speak with your childs doctor if they are on medications that target GABA receptors because they can deplete the neurotransmitter GABA and affect the ability to maintain and balance GABA. 2014;121(8):891905. Your email address will not be published. Sai, Y., et al. 2018 Jun 1;20(3):204-208. Naaijen, J., et al. We do not know the mode of action of the ketogenic diet in controlling epilepsy. No wonder these are so bad for so many. Autism Associated With Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis: Glutamate-Related Therapy. On the flip side, foods that are high in carbohydrates such as any sugary food, bread, and other grain/wheat-based products, most fruits, and beans shouldn't be eaten on the keto diet. Actual study start date is October 15, 2020. 16 Apr. Apparently, glutamate and aspartate consumed together can have even more harmful effects on the nervous systems of young children because of the incomplete myelin sheaths of their nervous system. Provides full spectrum b-vitamins, including a low dose 400mcg of methylfolate. Walls, A.B., et al. Epilepsy in mice deficient in the 65-kDa isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase. Low magnesium levels can lead to seizures. Apeland T, Mansoor MA, Pentieva K, McNulty H, Seljeflot I, Strandjord RE. J Neurosci Res. My expert guest is Dr. Kathleen Holton . Therefore, reducing glutamates and increasing GABA is one way to restore the GABA/glutamate balance needed for appropriate brain functioning. However, glutamate uptake by the brain across the Blood Brain Barrier is very low. Some processed foods contain the artificial additive MSG and these tend to be savory foods, such as stocks, sauces, savory snacks and instant meals. 2019 Feb;108(2):200-201. Nightshades The Nightshades family of fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, potatoes, capsicum (peppers), eggplant (aubergine) and chillies/paprika are best avoided due to their high glutamate levels. She is an associate professor in the Department of Health Sciences at American University and is also affiliated with the Center for Behavioral Neuroscience . Poor diet Many seizures take place when blood sugar is low. If you are taking primidone or carbamazepine, vitamin B3 interferes with the breakdown of the drugs and can cause an unsafe level of the drug in your body. Currently you have JavaScript disabled. Hacohen, Y., et al. Epilepsy is definitely on the rise in pets and the combination of wheat and soy in pet foods is playing a huge role. If you suffer from glutamate sensititivy, eliminate as much natural and artificial glutamate as possible from your diet and any symptoms should subside. Fermented foods Fermented foods of any kind contain glutamates and glutamines. Also mushrooms, peas and broccoli can come back into the diet, but be aware of any returning symptoms. Grains Grains, such as wheat, barley and oats are highest in glutamate. Approximately 10-40% of epileptic patients develop high homocysteine levels. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 100(2012)841849. However, if you are unsure about a symptom at any time, check immediately with your medical or health care professional. 2017 Nov;42(12):2456-2465. Initially, some people may need to lower the amount of nervous system stimulants from all sources, and then reintroduce the natural food sources as far as can be tolerated, and then adjusted according to symptoms. Biomed Res Int. Glutamate is an Excitotoxin. 2008 Apr;62(4):451-62. For most people, food sources are not the issue, but food additives that contain these substances can become a big issue. Avoids the flavour enhancers 620-625 and natural glutamates such as strong cheeses (Parmesan, Camembert, Brie and Gruyere), soy sauce, oyster sauce, black bean sauce, tomato sauce, miso, yeast spread, mushrooms, plums and spinach. This information is not a substitute for medical advice, treatment, diagnosis, or consultation with a medical professional. A ketogenic diet increases the GAD enzyme and neurons can use ketones produced from fat burning as a precursor to GABA. Advocating a GF/DF/AF (additive free) diet to my clients over the last 28+ years is a big reason why I have had so many great results and many happy parents of previous difficult children. Glutamate mediated signaling in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorders. I would always avoid soy, however. Tang, J., et al. Excessive glutamate found in the brain convert to GABA automatically through an enzyme called Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase (GAD). Your comments are welcome, however if you wish to contact Sue please click here. Neurochem Int. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 17.8 (2013): 958-965. Glutamate also allows nerve cells to build associated information, which is a foundation of memory. Gaba and Glutamate Balance While serotonin is the neurotransmitter most commonly associated with depression, research suggests that glutamate may also play a role. Be wary of spice mixes as many of them contain hidden glutamate. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. It can be found in a bound form, where it is part of an unmodified protein, and is generally digested slowly, to be used by the brain and gut for healing, repair and stimulating our nervous system. The pediatric epilepsy team at Johns Hopkins has used the high fat, low carbohydrate ketogenic diet to address seizures since the diet's therapeutic origins in the 1920s. Gilliam, L.K., et al. Having said that, bone broths can be great for gut healing. This means eating foods high in free glutamate will cause the excess glutamate to remain outside of brain cells. 92 (2013) 149153. GABA receptors are found in the gastrointestinal tract and are important for bowel contraction to avoid constipation, abdominal pain and impaired transit. Qi, J., et al. Basic Health Publications Inc, 2007. Eliminate gluten and casein because they contain glutamates. The role of glutamate receptors in traumatic brain injury: implications for postsynaptic density in pathophysiology. Ford, T.C., et al. She guided us through what foods glutamates are hiding in and what symptoms they can produce. Avoid lunch meats because they contain high levels of free glutamates. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. pii: E193. Seizures ("fits," convulsions) are episodes of disturbed brain function that cause changes in attention or behavior. There are no cures for either illness, and treatments are being sought . Beware, as soy is incorporated into many products as a cheap protein filler. Our digestive system prevents toxins from reaching the brain. There can be more to autism that this alone of course, but anything that we can do to help is a bonus for those involved. Life Sci. The ketogenic diet includes a lot of saturated fats, which in excess can contribute to other health problems like high cholesterol and heart disease. These diets should be carried out with support . The low glutamate diet was previously shown to reduce symptoms in fibromyalgia, and thus, was a candidate for this funding. Rabbit and turkey are the highest in glutamate, while lamb and eggs are the lowest. Additionally, the low glutamate diet is balanced, nutritious and palatable, with no side effects. Aspartate is also an excitotoxin in excess, with similar effects as elevated glutamate. This diet is high in fats and low in carbohydrates and forces the brain to use fat-derived ketone bodies instead of glucose as the major energy source. The modified Atkins diet and the Low Glycemic Index treatment are two such diets . Belcastro V, Gaetano G, Italiano D, Oteri G, Caccamo D, Pisani LR, et al. The most widely employed metabolic therapy is the ketogenic diet, which has been in clinical use for a century (Wheless, 2008). 2010 Dec;115(6):1398-408. Eimerl, S., et al. Cass, Hyla MD. Soy may be labelled as vegetable protein, textured vegetable protein, or soy isolate. Low Glutamate Diet for the Treatment of Pediatric Epilepsy Aug 2021 - Mar 2022 Entered clinical data and recruited participants for Dr. Kathleen Holton's Low Glutamate Diet Study for Pediatric . cooking bone broths, soups and casseroles. Terpstra, M., et al. The keto diet is a high-fat, low-carb diet. The practice of altering the diet to treat epilepsy dates back to c. 400 BC, and the classical ketogenic diet has been utilized since the 1920s. The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high-fat, adequate-protein, and very-low-carbohydrate diet regimen that mimics the metabolism of the fasting state to induce the production of ketone bodies. Legumes/beans. Measurement will happen over the course of At 1 month post treatment. 2014 Dec;92(12):1792-800. Vitamin D Deficiency Highly Prevalent Among Epilepsy Patients. Medscape Medical News. Additionally, glutamate can be turned into GABA or aspartate. In normal circumstances, substances like glutamate do not normally cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) to enter the brain. The Secret Spice: An Undetectable Toxic Cause of Seizure. It is regulated at the synapse by the adjacent glial cell to make sure excessive amounts do not accumulate. 2002; 51(3): 237247. The best way to handle this is to only cook bones with no flesh for the broth, and then add some chopped meat to cook towards the end of the process if you would like a meaty flavour. Mol Pharmacol. Fronto-Striatal Glutamate in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Be cautious in supplementing with GABA, as it may convert back to glutamine and then glutamate. In order to keep these microglia cells in a reparative mode to reduce glutamates, it may be necessary to have your child eat a low glutamate diet. 13 May 2011. Since 1956, we have been serving the province . Despite trialling numerous medications, his OCD persisted for over 30 years. ABSTRACT. Limit usage of glutathione because it contains glutamate. Therefore, astrocytes are logical targets for metabolic therapies. 5) Tree nuts (e.g. 2011. Visit theEpidemic Answers Provider Directory to find a practitioner near you. Food low in glutamate and asparate: 1) Fruits. Glutamates role in the body is to stimulate our brain cells to deliver messages throughout the body and is particularly important for memory, learning, and general growth and development of the brain, especially for children. Epilepsy Ontario is the voice of epilepsy in the province. Good gut flora is crucial to GABA production and a healthy gut/brain axis. Autism and EMF? Plausibility of a pathophysiological linkPart I. Autism and EMF? Supplement with bacopa to reduce excitotoxicity, brain inflammation and improve blood flow to the brain. It regulates the receptors of other important neurotransmitters such as: Dopamine and norepinephrine are part of a group of neurotransmitters called catecholamines which are hormones released into the bloodstream by the adrenals in response to physical or emotional stress. Diet and Nutrition Factsheet 20 How does diet affect epilepsy? GAD65 antibody-associated autoimmune epilepsy with unique independent bitemporal-onset ictal asystole. It is planned to include 40 participants. Increase magnesium levels to offset calcium levels and stop glutamate misfiring. Cassels, Carolyn. These results provide evidence that low-fat dietary strategies more palatable than the ketogenic diet could be useful in epilepsy. Mid-Meal (11:00-11:30AM) 1 cup black beans soup + 1 cup sauteed vegetables (mushrooms, spinach, capsicum- with butter and olive oil) Lunch (2:00-2:30PM) 1 plate chicken salad with veggies (chicken breast) (onion, tomato, capsicum . Foods and Substances to avoid on a Low Glutamate Diet. Many of these are processed foods/ingredients such as: However, even some non-processed foods can contain high levels of glutamate: For more information about foods that contain high amounts of free glutamates, please see The Truth In Labeling Campaigns list of ingredient names used to hide manufactured free glutamate. MSG is often found in cheaper meat products. Click here for instructions on how to enable JavaScript in your browser. Here are other recommendations to avoid high free glutamate foods: The daily portions of whole foods are broken down as follows to ensure a healthy nutrient balance in a low glutamate diet: Other factors, including supplements, can increase or decrease glutamate. One mom in California, biochemist Katherine Reid PhD, used her science-based knowledge to create a low-glutamate diet that stabilizes protein and eliminates all inflammatory foods that were excitatory for her daughter with autism. Beans Beans, such as soy, navy, pinto, black, lima beans and lentils are all high in glutamic acid/glutamine. 2016 Jul 8;11(7):e0158688. They are caused by abnormally excited electrical signals in the brain. An important consideration for those wishing to follow a low glutamate diet is that glutamate is found in many foods naturally and not just as an additive. . The entire GI tract, from the esophagus to the colon, has numerous glutamate receptors. Brain Res. Click here for instructions on how to enable JavaScript in your browser. A study in 2007 showed 44.5 percent of epilepsy patients 45.3 percent of men and 43.7 percent of women were vitamin D deficient, putting these patients at potential increased risk for a wide variety of conditions, including osteoporosis, autoimmune disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and infectious disease, among others. Autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Sep 20;108(38):16050-5. Increased glutamate concentration in the auditory cortex of persons with autism and first-degreer elatives: A(1)H-MR study. The diet is called the Reduced Excitatory Inflammatory Diet (REID). . 44 (2011) 8392. Glutamate is the gun while calcium is the bullet! The longer and slower you cook meat, the more free glutamate is present e.g. These cookies do not store any personal information. . In fact, EMFs not only cause this flooding of calcium channels, but they can also cause a blood-brain-barrier breech and thus allow infections to invade the brain, leading to PANS/PANDAS. Pain transmitter: Higher levels of glutamate are linked to . Epilepsy in mice deficient in the 65-kDa isoform of glutamic aciddecarboxylase. Brain Res Bull. Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government. Although these studies are based on a strict diet called the ketogenic diet, recent evidence has shown that less restrictive diets may also be helpful. Common foods that contain high levels of glutamate as an additive are soups, noodle dishes, like 2-minute noodles etc. Kash, S.F., et al. Brain infection with Staphylococcus aureus leads to high extracellular levels of glutamate, aspartate, -aminobutyric acid, and zinc. 6 Dec. 2007. Carefully note any patterns of symptoms that emerge. The keto diet is high in fat, adequate in protein and very low in carbohydrates (carbs). Pathophysiology 20.3 (2013): 211-234. Avoid all power drinks, power bars, protein bars and protein shakes. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. How to Increase GABA and Balance Glutamate, Katie Reids pantry list of recommended foods, Unblind My Mind: What Are We Eating? Blood Glutamate Levels in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 1994 Jan;17(1):49-53. 2015 Mar 19;1601:92-101. Supplement Your Prescription. 2011 Jul 15;85(6):313-20. 15 Apr. 1) Gluten-free grain substitutes (millet, flax, sorghum, tapioca, amaranth, quinoa) 2) Nuts and seeds (with tree nuts being ideal) 3) Legumes/beans (if necessary and if desired. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. Alcohol Alcoholic beverages contain glutamate, especially those using mixers of diet soft-drinks/sodas that also contain aspartates. Supplement with magnesium L-threonate, a form of magnesium that can cross the blood-brain barrier. Luo, P., et al. Be sure to keep a daily food diary and be sure to look for improvements or decline in your childs physical, emotional, behavioral and academic symptoms. Br J Pharmacol. This elimination diet was created by John B. Symes, a veterinarian who calls himself Dogtor J. The amount of glutamate and aspartate in a normal serving of meat would normally not be an issue. Pyridoxine Supplementation Improves the Activity of Recombinant. The Secret Spice: An Undetectable Toxic Cause of Seizure. Nuts and seeds. Epidemic Answers has not verified and does not guarantee the accuracy of the information provided in this document. 4. Penguin Life, 2003. 4. A host of conditions are associated with a GABA/glutamate imbalance: Excessive glutamates, which come primarily from ones diet, can overstimulate the nervous system and produce adverse neurological symptoms which affect: When the immune system is compromised and not functioning properly, then a GABA/glutamate imbalance becomes more pronounced and problematic. Glutamate is also found in significant quantities in other foods that are not matured in any way. Glutamate is also found in significant quantities in other foods that are not matured in any way. Additionally, the low glutamate diet is balanced, nutritious and palatable, with no side effects. The study is investigating if following the low glutamate diet for 1 month can improve seizure frequency, severity, and duration; cognitive functioning; and/or quality of life, in children with epilepsy. dopamine, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA . Meat is generally a healthful food and should not be avoided. Diabetologia. 2019 Jul 24:1362361319866030. Low Serum Pyridoxine Levels Worsen Seizure Control in Adult Epilepsy Patients Breakfast (8:00-8:30AM) 1 cup strawberry smoothie + 1 cup cottage cheese + 5-6 tofu pakora. Epidemic Answers Provider Directory to find a practitioner near you. by SHC Staff | Jun 13, 2011 | Health Issues. Coghlan, S., et al. Glutamate is essential for life, but there are many people who are sensitive to it.

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